History of the Ming Dynasty

History of the Ming Dynasty The Ming Dynasty was one of great importance in Chinese history, and from its humble beginnings in 1368 came the most impressive architectural achievement in China – The Forbidden City. This city, built by three master architects chosen by Emperor YongLe, became the center of all diplomatic activity for the emperor and those closely associated with him. Over a thousand great buildings were created for the Forbidden City, all to be used by the emperor and his servants. Palaces for domestic life, several more palaces for the empress and her servants, religious buildings, buildings used for political work, and lavish gardens all filled the grounds of the new capital. However, what was most interesting about Emperor YongLes Forbidden City was not that of all the buildings themselves, but the premises upon which they were built, premises of religion and symbolism that remain important to Chinese society to this day. Following the demise of the Ming Dynasty, the Qing Dynasty emerged and Emperor Qianlongs six extravagant art collections emerged along with it. These six art collections, some bearing Western influenced, included an assorted amount of ceramics, paintings, sculpture, bronze ware, jade and other minor arts, and all were enmeshed with the art previously brought in to the Forbidden City by Emperor YongLe. The stylistic architectural decisions instituted by Emperor YongLe while building the Forbidden City, along with Emperor Qianlongs six art collections, reflect the importance of religion, symbolism, and art in Chinese culture, and remain to be important aspects of China in present times. The grandson of a peasant who was one â€Å"of only three peasants ever to become an emperor of China,† Emperor YongLe was the third emperor in the Ming Dynasty. YongLe â€Å"fought alongside his father in the Yunnan campaign to clear the country of the last bastion of Mongolian resistance,† and despite being considered as exemplary, he was overlooked as emperor. Instead, the elder emperor, having bypassed his son, chose to make his grandson the emperor. This did not sit well with Emperor YongLe who later usurped his nephew and changed his reign name to that which he is remembered by, YongLe, or â€Å"Perpetually Happy.† YongLe ruled from 1403 to 1424 and tended to be remembered as one of the emperors who had done the most for China, most notably, moving the capital of China from Nanjing to Beijing in the North. It was here that YongLe was approached by one of his spiritual advisors, who told the emperor of a vision he had of a great Imperial city. It was under this particular advisement that the Emperor decided to build this Forbidden City, the center of all life for the emperors, not only during YongLes reign, but for the reigns of emperors during other dynasties as well. In the introduction of the book The Palace Museum: Peking, author Wan-go Wen asserts that â€Å"for every supreme ruler of China, his capital was the center of the earth – not merely the seat of government but a solemn symbol of imperial power and authority and of the ideal polity,† and the Forbidden City was an ideal example of this center of the earth for Emperor YongLe. This imperial palace, was actually named â€Å"the Purple Forbidden City,† and was named as such â€Å"after the Purple Luminous Constellation with Polaris, the North Star, in its center – a heavenly equivalent of the earthly residence of the supreme ruler.† Author Yu Zhuyon claimed that â€Å"fixed in time and space, [the Pole Star] was to be found at the apex of the vault of heaven and the gods of all the other stars revolved around it in homage,† and as the emperor was the leader of all of his people, the idea of Polaris coincided with the idea of the Forbidden City. This religious idea, and comparison of the Emperor to the deity in his â€Å"apex of his vault of heaven,† showed not only how important the Emperor was to his people, but also how the Emperor himself was revered as a god-like incarnation on Earth. Before the Forbidden City was even built, Emperor YongLe put much thought and effort into its construction, bringing in three master architects who were to adhere to the strictest set of religious rules, such as the idea of yin and yang, in the construction and building of the Forbidden City. There were three important aspects in the planning of the City itself, and all three were noted by Yu Zhuyon. The first of these three points was the fact that there was no natural water supply to the Forbidden City itself, so â€Å"water was channeled into it from the Great Liquid Pool at the northwest corner† and this channeling aided in bringing water into the Inner Court. The second of these three points stemmed from the Emperors desire to have a long walkway in his City, much like the wide walkway used at the palaces of the Northern Song dynasty. With careful research and precision, these builders applied the â€Å"Song Layout,† from the aforementioned Northern Song dynasty, which allowed for â€Å"the grandeur of the wide avenue,† which was what the Emperor desired. Finally, Yu Zhuyon explains the third point that was important in the pre-construction of the Forbidden City, that being the creation of a moat behind the Forbidden City in the style that â€Å"corresponded to the arrangement at the Ming palace in Nanjing,† which was built specifically to make the city more secure for the empress, as well as the emperors concubines. It was at this point that construction of the Forbidden City could begin and all the planning could evolve from mere plans to reality. When it finally came time to build the thousand buildings that make up the Forbidden City, three things were done to prepare for it: the collection of timber, the production and transportation of bricks and tiles, and the transportation of large quarrying stones. The work that went into gathering all these items was done by a large amount of people, and many of these people who built the Forbidden City put themselves in grave danger to acquire these supplies. To secure the use of this timber â€Å"involved first rolling [logs] into the dry mountain gullies. They were lashed together to form rafts and left to await the torrents which plunged down the mountainside during the rainy season†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and then, when this timber finally made arrived at its destination, it was put in massive storerooms until it was to be used. The production and transportation of the surface bricks for the walls of the city were not the mud bricks that were commonly used, because these bricks, over time, suffered from a great deal of wear. Instead, the Forbidden City was built with clay bricks which were made first by mixing water and clay together, and then put in the sun to dry. These were not the most important aspects of the building materials in the city – those were the roof tiles that were symbolically representative of the Five elements and the â€Å"golden brick† floor tiles from Suzho. These â€Å"golden bricks† were â€Å"the finest floor tiles, smooth and dense,† and called â€Å"golden bricks† because they sounded like metal when they were hit. Finally came the moving of the heavy quarrying stone, which involved the creation of a slippery slope that builders could push said quarrying stone along. These stones held particular importance in the creation of the Forbidden City, because these specific stones relied on the ideas of space and distance which, when paired with the ideas of yin and yang and the Five elements, reflected many of the major aspects of Chinese cultural beliefs. The idea of space and distance, when applied to the architecture of the Forbidden City correlated with the ideas of â€Å"cosmic environment for the imperial family,† which intertwined itself with the idea of the Emperor being a deity. The theory of the five Elements and the omnipotent idea of yin and yang were also important in the architecture of the Forbidden City as both were pivotal parts of Chinese history. The idea of yin and yang emerged during the Han dynasty in 207 B.C. and has remained a part of the Chinese lifestyle. Under the idea of yin came the ideas of â€Å"maleness, the sun, creation, light, heat, Heaven, dominance, and so on,† while the opposite fell under the ideas of yang. According to Washington State University professor Richard Hooker, all aspects of life could be explained by these two opposite ideas of yin and yang, and these two ideas were applied to the building of the YongLes city. Where even numbers take precedence in the Inner Court (such as the six Western palaces for the empress, and the emperors concubines), odd numbers are dominant in the Outer Court or â€Å"the system of the three halls and five gates.† Following the use of yin and yang in the architecture of the Forbidden City was the use of the Five elements, which were fire, water, metal/gold, wood, and Earth, and each person and creation carried some combination of these elements around in them. These elements all were represented by different colors, and these colors were used in the architecture of the city itself, such as green tiles that represented â€Å"the tenderness of spring and corresponds to the east† being used to tile the Hall that was used for study. The carefully thought out application of yin and yang, as well as the citys Five elements of water, fire, metal/gold, wood, and Earth, reflected the symbolism of these two ideas that, as mentioned previously, still play large roles in the lives of Chinese citizens. To enter the Forbidden City, one must first remove their shoes, and leave their horses and carts outside the palace doors. Inside, the city contains over a thousand buildings, each of these buildings being significant in their own way. There is not a building in the entire compound that is out of place, they all mean something, and have symbolic representations that were well planned out ahead of time. One of the most important of these buildings is the Gate of Great Harmony (also known as the Gate of Supreme Harmony), known as the greatest gate in the entire Forbidden City. The Gate of Great Harmony is the pathway that one must take to reach the Three Great Audience Halls, which are three large buildings that â€Å"occupy the main space of the Forbidden City, covering an expanse of 85,000 sq. m.† This Gate of Great Harmony, described by Weng as â€Å"elegant and expansive,† was oftentimes used by the emperor himself when he spoke to the people in the Forbidden City. To create this gate, â€Å"a new architectural element is now introduced to define the inner style: marble terraces, with intricately carved railings,† which, prior to this time, had never been used. After some time had passed, however, the emperor ceased to use this gate at all. Despite this fact, this particular gate played a role in the symbolism of Heaven on Earth because the Hall of Supreme Harmony, which was built to recreate the aforementioned Heaven on Earth, was accessed through this gate. The Hall of Supreme Harmony is the largest courtyard in the Forbidden City and carries both religious and symbolic importance. Zhuyon wrote that â€Å"this courtyard truly gives rise to the feeling that Heaven is high and earth is broad,† and it was true, as this expansive garden is home to some of the most elaborate pieces of sculpture in the entire Forbidden City. This Hall of Supreme Harmony is also one of religious importance, as it is a Taoist temple that, although not used by YongLe, was in fact used by those who followed after him. The Hall also manages to show symbolic importance because it reflects YongLes application of yin and yang in the Imperial Garden. Just as important, if not more important, than the Outer Court, was the Inner Court, or the domestic area where the emperor and those closely associated to him lived and carried out their daily lives. Though the idea of space and distance was highly regarded and used in the Outer Court with great diligence, it was much harder for the Inner Court to be so spacious. Instead, these palaces and other buildings were built closely together. The Inner Court was the yang to the Outer Courts yin, and everything related to the Inner Court corresponded evenly, such as the Six Western and Six Eastern Palaces that were constructed to house all of the Emperors concubines. The two key features of the Inner Court were not these Six Western and Six Eastern Palaces, but instead remained to be the Palace of Heavenly Purity and the Palace of Earthly Tranquility, the two palaces which were not only home to the Emperor and the Empress, but also the palaces where the Emperor conducted business with his advisors, and where the Emperor â€Å"the emperor lay in state immediately following his death.† Over time, both of these Palaces would undergo incredible amounts of architectural renovation, specifically under the reign of Emperor Qianlong. Emperor Qianlongs renovation to YongLes vision was not his only contribution to the Forbidden City. Instead, his six extravagant art collections were in fact, his greatest contribution to the city itself. These six collections included beautiful pieces of ceramics, paintings and calligraphy, sculpture, bronze ware, jade, and so-called â€Å"minor arts† that remain on display in the Palace Museum in modern times. Though much of the architecture in the Forbidden City reflects the architectural decisions made by YongLe, the art is all reminiscent of Emperor Qianlong and his time in the Palace. Of all the art collections in his possession, it was noted that the collection of paintings and calligraphy were what Emperor Qianlong had the most of. In fact, Qianlong â€Å"practiced [painting and calligraphy] personally and thus saw from the viewpoint of an artist as well as a connoisseur.† Despite seeing from the viewpoint of an artist as well as a connoisseur, Qianlong was not very good at either painting or calligraphy, but that did not deter him from practicing or collecting, and Qianlong actually went so far as to use the example of fourth century artists handwriting to better his own calligraphy. Chinese calligraphy was a great art, with broad, sweeping strokes and vivid colors which were reminiscent of great paintings. These paintings have always been incredibly important in Chinese culture, and the paintings in the Forbidden City were no exception to this. The first Chinese paintings were simple black ink brush strokes on parchment paper, but â€Å"the efforts of later artists in their search for the expression of spirit or essence of all animate and inanimate objects extended from figure painting to landscape and bird and flower paintings†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and this expression of spirit was what Chinese artists became most known for. Zhu Jiajin claimed that â€Å"porcelain is one of Chinas great inventions, achieved through an amalgamation of the two disciplines of science and art,† and this is true. Chinas most important family of art is still to this day ceramics, or â€Å"china.† Though Emperor Qianlongs vast art collection contained pieces of china, some of these were beautiful vases and plates from the Ming Dynasty. Some artisans made vases out of vibrant colors such as blue, red, and black, while others made sculptures out of â€Å"pure white clay called kaolin.† Kaolin was not the only kind of clay that was available, and as time proceeded, many different types of ceramics also originated, and â€Å"under glaze decoration, a technique invented at the Changsha kilns† was used. In this form of decoration, the craftsman would decorate his vase or sculpture with a color, and then they would glaze the art and put it in the kiln. All these styles of ceramic artistry paved the way for other craftsmen in this same style. Sculptures were another form of art that made their way to the Forbidden City, and, as mentioned earlier, some of the most beautiful of these sculptures can be seen in the courtyard of the Hall of Supreme Harmony. â€Å"Stone, bone, horn, ivory, jade, shells, bamboo, and wood† were the chosen mediums that sculptors used to carve important figures of people and animals. One of the greatest discoveries of sculptures associated with the Forbidden City was the tomb of the first Qin Emperor. In this particular tomb was a monumental find that no one had known about, and this was a collection of life-sized clay soldiers and horses that were standing guard over the tomb of this great Emperor. It was said that, though the life-sized sculptures were made of clay, they were buried â€Å"with real chariots and weapons of that time, numbering more than seven thousand – an army sufficient to guard the supreme ruler in his afterlife.† There has been no greater or monumental find of such size and artistry found since this time, with the excavation of this tomb taking many painstaking years. Prior to the use of bronze in the creation of beautiful pieces of art, bronze was used by the Chinese for tools. As time progressed, artists began to craft three beautiful types of vessels that served three specific purposes – vessels for foods, wine vessels, and water vessels. These bronze vessels were used by Chinese nobility and reflected the styles of the times. Some of these sacrificial vessels contained images of people, but in later dynasties, the vessels stopped containing representations of people and turned more towards representations of animals. Artists began to inscribe poignant Chinese characters into their bronze vessels, these â€Å"master craftsmen of over 3,000 years ago were skilled in the art of the making of moulds and casting the finished article and were able to produce superb works which were well balanced with a sense of visual rhythm and strength†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and it was these craftsmen and Qianlongs interest in them that made these bronze vessels exceptional. In all of China, jade is viewed as something that is highly treasure, even above such fine metals as gold. â€Å"Jade is a material of supreme merit, possessing beauty, character, and mystery,† and has been used to make beautiful sculptures, vases, and tools. Chinese poets wrote beautiful poetry about jade, and artisans spent extended amounts of time coming up with innovative ways to cut and style the stone into gorgeous figurines. One of the most exquisite pieces of art from this time period is a sculpture that weighs close to 2000 pounds. This sculpture, called The Nine Elders of Huichang, was carved out of a boulder and has been on display in the Forbidden City for many years. Not only did artists carve sculptures out of jade, they also carved their prose into the sculptures that they created. Qianlong was so much an advocate of jade that he had a workshop built and had artisans come in to make figurines, boxes, and ornaments for him. It was due to Qianlongs immense favoritism of jade that this period of time is viewed as â€Å"the single most eventful era in the history of jade carving,† and there are some accounts that assert that, as a novice artist, Qianlong himself might have attempted to carve jade as well. The last collection of art to remain as an important part of the Forbidden City is that which scholars call â€Å"minor art.† These arts included handicraft arts, lacquer wares, cloisonnà © art, glass blowing, bamboo carving and work done with copper and enamel. One of the most famous of these minor arts artists emerged from the Imperial Palaces artistry workshop. This craftsman, Wu Zhifan, was a prolific bamboo carver who was known to carve â€Å"pagodas, dragon boats and the intricate reticulated balls carved from a single piece of ivory, one inside another and all movable,† and still other craftsmen were handpicked by the emperor himself to come and carve sculptures and other pieces of art for him out of ivory and bamboo. Lacquer ware artists poured lacquer, put it in the sun and then in a damp area, and were able to mold lacquer ware boxes and cups out of it. Another form of art, glass blowing, is one with origins that are unknown to scholars. The artists would blow the glass into vases and then use a glaze to give the glass its â€Å"hardness, brilliance, and colorfulness, which approximate the magical attributes of precious and semiprecious stones.† All of these forms of art were incredibly time consuming, but the finished products were always intricate and beautiful. In China, the Ming and Qing Dynasties remain as two of the most important dynasties in Chinese cultural history. From its humble beginnings in 1368, the Ming Dynasty helped to shape Chinese history forever with the help of its third emperor, the Emperor YongLe. Over a thousand great buildings were created to fulfill Emperor YongLes great vision of a home for the gods on Earth, a Forbidden City that appeared to one of YongLes tutors in an extraordinary vision. This beautiful city that grew in the new capital of Beijing became the center for all activity in China. The most important part of this Imperial City lay in its careful planning and architectural execution. The ideas of symmetry, religion, and symbolism all played a large role in China and all of these ideas were applied to the layout of the city. The premises upon which the city was built remain as some of Chinas most important. Following the demise of the Ming Dynasty, many others followed, but none as important to the Ming Dynasty as the Qing Dynasty, because with the Qing Dynasty came a flourishing art workshop that provided the Palace with an assortment of beautiful art collections. Ceramics, paintings and calligraphy, bronze ware, jade, and other minor arts, were diligently created and enmeshed in the art that was the architecture of the Forbidden City. Emperor YongLes carefully created architectural decisions, paired with Emperor Qianlongs exquisite art collections, were important in reflecting the incorporation of religion, symbolism, and art, in Chinese culture in prior times, and remain as important aspects of China in the present.

Qualitative Tests Used For Carbohydrates Biology Essay

Qualitative Tests Used For Carbohydrates Biology Essay Carbohydrates are an essential component of our diet and an important source of energy for us. Most of the things generally included in our diet have a large ratio of carbohydrates present. Also the patients suffering from Diabetes excrete huge amounts of sugar in their urine which needs to be estimated. The purity of carbohydrates can also be checked by methods which can qualitatively estimate particular sugars. Hence the need for carbohydrate estimation arose. We have been estimating carbohydrates qualitatively since school time but it was just confined to observing a colour change or a coloured precipitate to detect the presence of a carbohydrate. None of us ever thought that these qualitative tests are highly sensitive and provide much more information than just detecting the presence of a sugar. In this study conducted, two qualitative tests used for carbohydrates were studied: Benedicts test and Seliwanoffs test. Benedicts test is a test used for detecting the presence of Reducing Sugars. The test was performed using Glucose which is the most common reducing sugar. Sucrose was used as a negative control. Different concentrations of glucose were tried ranging from 1.6 M to 1.6 mM and from 4% to 0.25%.Also along with concentration the amount of sugar was varied to find the sensitivity limits and the limitations of the test. The result of Benedicts test is usually a brick red precipitate but with some modifications different colours of solutions and different amounts of precipitate could be observed with slight variation in the concentration and amount of sugar. This suggests that this test being Qualitative is not only an indicator of the presence or absence of a reducing sugar but can also be used to roughly estimate the concentration of sugar present. It can be very useful in estimation of the concentration of sugar present in the urine of diabetic patients. Seliwanoffs test is a qualitative test used for distinguishing between Aldoses and ketoses. Ketoses form a cherry red condensation product whereas Aldoses react to form a blue-green condensation product, which may further change to a peach product. The test was performed using fructose as the sample sugar. Various concentrations of Fructose were used ranging from 4% to 0.01% to find the sensitivity limits and the limitations of the test. The test appeared to be sensitive even at 0.01% showing a very faint red colour. There was a huge variation in the intensity of colour obtained at different concentrations of sugar. But the drawback of the test was that the red colour of the solution was not stable. It intensified with increase in the duration of time. 2. INTRODUCTION Carbohydrates are the most abundant bio molecules on Earth. Each year, photosynthesis converts more than 100 billion metric tons of CO2 and H2O into cellulose and other plant products. Certain carbohydrates (sugar and starch) are a dietary staple in most parts of the world, and the oxidation of carbohydrates is the central energy-yielding pathway in most non-photosynthetic cells. Insoluble carbohydrate polymers serve as structural and protective elements in the cell walls of bacteria and plants and in the connective tissues of animals. Other carbohydrate polymers lubricate skeletal joints and participate in recognition and adhesion between cells. More complex carbohydrate polymers covalently attached to proteins or lipids act as signals that determine the intracellular location or metabolic fate of these hybrid molecules, called glycoconjugates. .Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones, or substances that yield such compounds on hydrolysis. Many, but not all, carbohydrates have the empirical formula (CH2O)n; some also contain nitrogen, phosphorus, or sulphur. There are three major size classes of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides Classification Carbohydrates can be classified on the basis of the various characteristics they possess. They can be classified on the basis of the number of carbon atoms in the sugar chain, the terminal functional group in the chain, the number of sugar subunits and the reducing activity of the sugar units. Depending on various basis they are of several types: A. According to the number of carbon atoms in the sugar chain: 1. Trioses: contain 3 carbon atoms (e.g. glyceraldehyde). 2. Pentoses: contain 5 carbon atoms (e.g. ribose). 3. Hexoses: contain 6 carbon atoms (e.g. glucose). B. According to the terminal functional group in the sugar chain: 1. Aldoses: contain terminal aldehyde group (-CHO) (e.g. glucose). 2. Ketoses: contain terminal ketone group (C=O) (e.g. fructose). C. According to the number of sugar subunits: 1. Monosaccharides: Monosaccharides, or simple sugars, consist of a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit. The most abundant monosaccharide in nature is the six-carbon sugar D-glucose, sometimes referred to as dextrose. 2. Oligosaccharides: Consist of short chains of monosaccharide units(2-10) joined by characteristic linkages called glycosidic bonds. The most abundant are disaccharides, with two monosaccharide units. e.g. sucrose (cane sugar), which consists of the six-carbon sugars- D-glucose and D fructose. 3. Polysaccharides: The polysaccharides are sugar polymers containing more than 20 or so monosaccharide units, and some have hundreds or thousands of units. Some polysaccharides, such as cellulose, are linear chains; others such as glycogen, are branched. Both glycogen and cellulose consist of recurring units of D-glucose, but they differ in the type of glycosidic linkage and have different properties and biological roles. . D. According to the reducing activity of the sugar unit: Carbohydrates that can undergo oxidation are called reducing sugars. This depends on the presence of an exposed carbonyl group. 1. Reducing sugars: Certain sugars with a free carbonyl carbon can be oxidized by oxidizing agents such as ferric (Fe3) or cupric (Cu2) ion. The carbonyl carbon (anomeric carbon) is oxidized to a carboxyl group. Such sugars capable of reducing ferric or cupric ion are called Reducing sugars. e.g. lactose, maltose. 2. Non-reducing sugars: Sugars like sucrose contain no free anomeric carbon atom since the anomeric carbons of both monosaccharide units are involved in the formation of glycosidic bond. Therefore it is a Non-Reducing sugar. 2.1 Biochemical Tests for Carbohydrates The biochemical tests for carbohydrates can be divided into two categories: Qualitative Tests- These tests are performed to detect the presence of carbohydrates in a test sample. They are also used to detect the type of carbohydrate present. There are different types of qualitative tests for different types of carbohydrates. e.g. Fehlings and Benedicts test for reducing sugars, Seliwanoffs test for ketoses, Iodines test for starch,Bials test for detecting pentoses etc. They are not very sensitive as compared to quantitative tests and cannot estimate the exact amount of carbohydrates present but show some difference in the observation with variation in the amount of carbohydrate hence, can be used to make a rough estimate of the amount of sugar present. Quantitative Tests- These tests are the advanced form of qualitative tests and can be used to estimate the amount of carbohydrate present in a given sample. These tests use particular chemicals which form coloured complexes with sugars which can then be read at certain wavelengths using a spectrophotometer. Their absorbance can then be used to estimate the exact amount of carbohydrate present in the sample. e.g. Anthrone test, DNS Method, Phenol- Sulphuric Acid Method etc. 2.11 Qualitative Test Flow Chart for classifying an unknown carbohydrate A. Molisch Test Molisch test is used to distinguish between carbohydrates and non- carbohydrates. It is the preliminary test used to detect the presence of carbohydrates in a sample. Principle It uses concentrated sulphuric acid as a Dehydrating acid which dehydrates all carbohydrates to form Furfural or 5-hydroxymethylurfural from reaction of sulphuric acid with pentoses and/or hexoses. These products condense with ÃŽ ±-naphthol to yield a purple condensation product. B. Iodine and Potassium Iodide Test This is a test used particularly to detect starch and glycogen. Starch gives a blue-black colur with potassium iodide whereas glycogen gives reddish-brown colour. Principle Starch contains ÃŽ ±-amylose, a helical saccharide polymer, and amylopectin. Iodine forms a large complex polysaccharide with the ÃŽ ±-amylose helix, producing a blue-black colour. Simple Oligosaccharides and Monosaccharides do not form this complex with Iodine. Thus, the I2/KI test can be used to distinguish starches from other carbohydrates. C. Bials Test Bials test is used to distinguish between pentoses and hexoses. Principle This test uses concentrated hydrochloric acid as the dehydrating acid and orcinol with a trace of iron(III) chloride as the condensation reagent.. Pentoses subjected to the test yield a blue or green condensation product, while hexoses yield a muddy brown to grey condensation product. Pentose Dehydration Product Blue or Green condensation product (Furfural) Hexose Dehydration Product Muddy brown-Grey condensation product (5-hydroxymethylfurfural) D. Seliwanoffs Test Seliwanoffs test is used to distinguish between aldoses and ketoses. Principle This test uses 3N hydrochloric acid as the dehydrating agent as resorcinol as the condensation reagent. When mixed with Seliwanoffs Reagent, Ketopentoses react within 2 minutes to form a cherry red condensation product. Aldopentoses react after 2 minutes to form a blue-green condensation product, which may further change to a peach product. Fructose Hydroxy-methyl Cherry-Red Complex Furfural Identifying Reducing Sugars All mono and disaccharides with a free aldehyde or keto group act as reducing agents in alkaline solutions. The reducing properties of sugars are dependent upon the presence of actual or potential aldehyde or ketone groups. The enolization of sugars under alkaline conditions is an important consideration in reduction tests. The ability of a sugar to reduce alkaline test reagents depends on the availability of an aldehyde or keto group for reduction reactions. A number of sugars, especially disaccharides or polysaccharides have glycosidic linkages which involve bonding between each group, and hence there is no reducing group on the sugar; such as the case for sucrose, trehalose, inulin, glycogen, starch, and dextrin. In the case of reducing sugars, the presence of alkali causes extensive enolization especially at high pH and temperature. This leads to a higher susceptibility to oxidation reactions than at neutral or acidic pH. These sugars, therefore, become potential agents capable of reducing Cu+2 to Cu+, Ag+ to Ag and so forth. Reducing sugars can react with many different oxidizing agents. Fehlings test, Benedicts test and Barfoeds test have been used to distinguish between monosaccharides and disacc harides Monosaccharides fluctuate between a ring open form and a ring closed form. The ketone (-C=O) group, for Fructose and the aldehyde group (-CHO), for Glucose in the ring open forms can be reduced using these tests. Some sugar units in disaccharides also fluctuate between a ring open form and a ring closed form. These disaccharides are also reducing sugars because the ring open form has a ketone or aldehyde to react. Sucrose is one of the few disaccharides that do not have a ring open form so it is a non-reducing sugar.  ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­ Ring Open Fructose and Ring Closed Fructose Ring Open Glucose and Ring Closed Glucose Reducing Sugars are oxidized by copper (II) ions. Benedicts reagent and Fehlings Reagent are mildly basic solutions whereas Barfoeds Reagent, a mildly acidic solution. The presence of red copper (I) oxide precipitate indicates that the saccharide has reduced the copper (I) ions. E. Fehlings test Principle Fehlings test uses a mixture of fehlings solution A and B. Fehlings solution A consists of copper(II) sulphate dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid. Fehlings solution B is sodium potassium tartarate dissolved in dilute NaOH. Both the solutions are mixed in equal proportions and used as fehlings reagent. This reagent is used as a general test for detecting reducing sugars. A reducing sugar reduce copper(II) ions to copper(I) oxide, forming a red precipitate. CuSO4Cu++ + SO4 2 Cu++  + Cu+ Glucose (Reducing Sugar) Cu+Cu2O (red precipitate) Cuprous Oxide F. Benedicts test Principle Benedicts test uses a mixture of copper(II) sulphate, sodium citrate, and sodium carbonate in a mildly basic solution. This reagent is used as a general test for detecting reducing sugars. A reducing sugar reduce copper(II) ions to copper(I) oxide, forming a red precipitate. CuSO4Cu++ + SO4- (Copper Sulphate) (Cupric Ion) (Sulphate Ion) 2 Cu++  + Cu+ Glucose (Reducing Sugar) Cu+Cu2O (red precipitate) Cuprous Oxide G. Barfoeds Test Benedicts test gives positive test results for all reducing sugars. However, not all reducing sugars react at the same rate. With different oxidizing agents, disaccharides are considerably less reactive compared to monosaccharides. A positive Barfoeds test result is similar to that observed with Benedicts solutions. Monosaccharides give positive Barfoeds test results within 2-3 minutes, while disaccharides do not react under the same conditions. Principle Barfoeds test uses copper(II) ions in a slightly acidic medium. If the reaction time is carefully monitored, this test can be used to distinguish reducing monosaccharides from reducing disaccharides. Reducing disaccharides cause the formation of copper(I) oxide after approximately 10 minutes. (CH3COO) 2Cu + 2H2O 2 CH3COOH + Cu(OH)2 Cu(OH)2 CuO+ H2O 2CuO  +Cu2O (red precipitate)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (Glucose) Reducing Sugar 2.12 Quantitative Tests A. Determination of Total Carbohydrate by Anthrone Method Principle Carbohydrates are first hydrolysed into simple sugars using dilute hydrochloric acid. In hot acidic medium glucose is dehydrated to hydroxymethyl furfural. This compound forms with anthrone a green coloured product with an absorption maximum at 630 nm. HCl anthrone Carbohydrate furfural/hydroxymethyfurfural Green product (630 nm) B. Phenol Sulphuric Acid Method for Total Carbohydrate Principle In hot acidic medium carbohydrates are dehydrated to furfural/hydroxymethyl furfural. This forms a green coloured product with phenol and has absorption maximum at 490 nm. H2SO4 phenol Carbohydrate furfural/hydroxymethylfurfural Green product (490 nm) C. Determination of Reducing Sugars by Nelson-Somogyi Method The Nelson-Somogyi method is one of the classical and widely used methods for the quantitative determination of reducing sugars. Principle The reducing sugars when heated with alkaline copper tartarate reduce the copper from the cupric to cuprous state and thus cuprous oxide is formed. When cuprous oxide is treated with Arsenomolybdic acid, the reduction of molybdic acid to molybdenum blue takes place. The blue colour developed is compared with a set of standards in a colorimeter at 620 nm. Cu2O+ Arsenomolybdate Molybdenum Blue (Cuprous Oxide) (500 nm) D. Estimation of Reducing Sugar by Dinitrosalicylic Acid Method This method is an alternative to Nelson-Somogyi method. It is a simple, sensitive and adoptable method during handling of a large number of samples at a time. However,  enzymatic  methods are usually preferred to DNS due to their specificity. Principle 3,5-Dinitrosalicylic acid   is an  aromatic compound  that reacts with reducing sugars to form  3-amino-5-nitrosalicylic acid, which absorbs  light  strongly at 540  nm. 3,5-Dinitrosalicylic acid 3-amino-5-nitrosalicylic acid E. Determination of Glucose by Glucose Oxidase Method Glucose is a widely distributed simple sugar with an active aldehyde group. Estimation of glucose by glucose oxidase gives the true glucose concentration eliminating the interference by other reducing sugars. Principle Glucose oxidase catalyses the oxidation of alpha-D-glucose to D-glucono-1, 5 lactone (gluconic acid) with the formation of hydrogen peroxide. The oxygen liberated from hydrogen peroxide by peroxidase reacts with the O-dianisidine and oxidises it to a red chromophore product. Glucose + O2 H2O2 + Gluconic Acid (glucose oxidase) H 2O2 + O-dianisidine Red-coloured product (peroxidase) (540 nm) 3. MATERIALS REQUIRED I) Stock Solutions Glucose 1.6 M Glucose 4% (w/v) Sucrose 0.1 M Fructose 4% (w/v) II) Reagents Benedicts Reagent Step 1-Dissolve 173 g sodium citrate and 100 g sodium carbonate in about 500 mL water. Step 2-Heat to dissolve the salt Step 3-Dissolve 17.3 g copper sulphate in about 100 mL water and add it to the above solution with stirring and make up the volume to 1 L with water. Seliwanoffs Reagent Dissolve 0.05 gm resorcinol in 3N hydrochloric Acid. III) Miscellaneous Water Bath Test Tubes Clamps Conical Flasks Beakers Containers Test tube holders 4. METHODOLOGY 4.1 Benedicts Test Step 1- Pipette out 1 ml of glucose solution in some test tubes so that there is a triplicate for each set. Step 2- Pipette out 1ml of Distilled Water in one test tube which serves as blank and 1 ml of Sucrose solution (0.1M) in another which serves as a negative control. Step 3- Add 2 ml of Benedicts reagent in all the test tubes. Step 4-Transfer all five tubes to the boiling water bath provided and record the time for the appearance of precipitate. Step5- Make a subjective analysis of the colours observed. A scale of + to +++++ can be used to record the depth of the colour, from lightest to darkest. 4.11 Effect of variation in Carbohydrate Concentration (in M) The concentration of glucose was varied from 1.6 M to 1.6 mM keeping the reaction volume constant to 3 ml. The upper and the lower sensitivity limits and the optimum molar concentration of glucose was found for the test through subjective analysis. 4.12 Effect of Reaction Volume The reaction volume was reduced from 3 ml to 1.5 ml for all the concentrations of glucose ranging from 1.6 M to 1.6 mM to find any difference in the sensitivity range and the optimum molar concentration of glucose for the test. 4.13 Effect of variation in Carbohydrate Concentration (in %) The concentration of glucose was varied from 4% to 0.25%. Also the reaction volume was changed and the analysis was performed in two sets. The volume of reagent used was 5 ml whereas the volume of samples all concentrations in Set A and B were 50ÃŽ ¼l and 25ÃŽ ¼l respectively. 4.14 Effect of variation in Sample Volume The volume of glucose was varied for the same concentrations 4% to 0.25% to see the changes in the colour of solution obtained and at the same time find the upper and lower limits at which the test still remains sensitive. The analysis was performed in 6 sets with the following volumes of glucose: 200ÃŽ ¼l, 100ÃŽ ¼l, 50ÃŽ ¼l, 25ÃŽ ¼l, 12.5ÃŽ ¼l and 6.25ÃŽ ¼l. 4.15 Effect of Reaction Volume on the results obtained. Of the various sets tried 5 ml of Benedicts reagent and 200ÃŽ ¼l of sample gave the best results. To verify the consistency of results obtained the reaction volume was reduced. The analysis was performed in two sets. Set A with 2.5 ml of reagent and 100ÃŽ ¼l of sample and Set B with 1.25 ml of reagent and 50ÃŽ ¼l of sugar sample. 4.2 Seliwanoffs Test Step 1- Pipette out 1 ml of fructose solution in test tubes so that there is a triplicate for each set. Step 2-Pipette out 1ml of Distilled Water in one test tube which serves as blank. Step 3- Add 2 ml of Seliwanoffs reagent in all the test tubes. Step 4-Transfer all tubes to the boiling water bath for 2.5 mins. Step 5- Make a subjective analysis of the colours observed. A scale of + to +++++ can be used to record the depth of the colour, from lightest to darkest. 4.21 Effect of variation in carbohydrate concentration (in %) The concentration of fructose was varied from 4% to 0.015% keeping the reaction volume constant to 3 ml. The upper and the lower sensitivity limits and the optimum concentration of fructose were found for the test through subjective analysis. 5. OBSERVATIONS 5.1 Benedicts Test 5.11 Effect of variation in Carbohydrate Concentration (in M) A brick red precipitate was observed for all the concentrations of sample ranging from 1.6 M to 3.125 mM. But the last concentration of 1.6 mM showed a negligible amount of precipitate. Also once centrifuged the supernatant was found to be colourless for concentrations ranging from 1.6 M to 0.1 M. The supernatant was observed to be blue in concentrations ranging from 50 mm to 1.6 mM. Glucose (M) Colour Intensity 1.6 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.02 0.012 0.006 0.003 0.001 +++ ++++ ++++ +++++ ++++++ +++++ ++++ +++ ++ + 5.12 Effect of variation in Reaction Volume A brick red prcipitate was observed for all the concentrations of sample ranging from 1.6 M to 6.25 mM. Concentrations 3.125 mM and 1.5625 mM showed a negligible amount of precipitate. For concentrations 6.25 mM to 0.1 M there was an increase in the amount of precipitate observed with the highest amount formed in 0.1 M of sample. For the next two concentrations i.e. 0.2 M and 0.4 M the amount of precipitate formed was almost equal but again reduced for 0.8 M and 1.6 M glucose sample. Also after centrifugation the supernatant was found to be colourless for concentrations ranging from 1.6 M to 0.1 M. The supernatant was observed to be increasingly blue in concentrations ranging from 50 mm to 1.5625 mM. Glucose (M) Colour Intensity 1.6 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.02 0.012 0.006 0.003 0.001 +++ ++++ +++++ +++++ ++++++ ++++ +++ ++ + 5.13 Effect of variation in carbohydrate concentrations (in %) There was a brick red precipitate observed in for all the concentrations of sample ranging from 0.25% to 4% in both the sets. The highest amount of precipitate was observed for 1% sample but there was no consistency in results seen. Glucose (%) Set Set B 4.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.25 +++ + ++++ + ++ + +++ 5.14 Effect of variation in Sample Volume There was a variation in the colours obtained at different concentrations and volumes of sugar sample used. But sets with 12.5ÃŽ ¼l and 6.25ÃŽ ¼l of sugar did not show any noticeable changes in colour. Glucose (%) Set A Set B Set C Set D Set E Set F Set B Set C Set D Set E Set F 4.00 2.00 1.00 0.50 0.25 reddish brown brown green greenish blue dull blue brown green greenish blue dull blue green greenish blue dull blue blue blue greenish blue dull blue blue blue blue dull blue blue blue blue blue blue blue blue blue blue 5.15 Effect of reduction in the reaction volume There was no change in the observations due to reduction in the reaction volume. Glucose (%) Set A Set B 4.0 2.0 1.0 0.5 0.25 reddish brown brown green greenish blue dull blue reddish brown brown green greenish blue dull blue 5.2 Seliwanoffs Test 5.21 Effect of variation in carbohydrate concentration (in %) A cherry red colour is observed for all the concentrations of fructose used but the intensity of colour obtained decreases with decrease in concentration. The lowest concentration used (0.015%) has a faint red colour. Also the colour of the solution intensifies with time if kept after boiling. Fructose (%) Colour Intensity 4.00 2.00 1.00 0.50 0.25 0.12 0.06 0.03 0.01 +++++++++ ++++++++ +++++++ ++++++ +++++ ++++ +++ ++ + 6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 6.1 Benedicts Test 6.11 Effect of variation in Carbohydrate Concentration (in M) It can be observed that 0.1 M is the optimum concentration of sugar for Benedicts reaction with the reaction volume of 3 ml since the highest amount of precipitate is formed at 0.1 M. Also the supernatant obtained after centrifugation is colourless which suggests that the reaction is completed and there is no unused reagent left. Concentrations less than 0.1 M show decreasing amounts of precipitate and the colour of the supernatant is also increasingly blue. This suggests that as the concentration of sugar is lowered the amount of unreacted Benedicts reagent increases which leaves the solution blue even after the reaction completes. 1.6 mM sugar sample shows a negligible amount of precipitate formation which suggests that the reaction is not sensitive for concentrations lower than 1.6 mM. For concentrations higher than 0.1 M the amount of precipitate formed again decreases with increase in concentration which suggests that the concentration is too high as compared to the amount of reagent used and hence no more precipitate is formed after the reaction completes. 6.12 Effect of variation in Reaction Volume The reaction volume was reduced to half but has no effect on the results of the experiment. 0.1 M is the optimum concentration of sugar for the reaction with the reaction volume of 3 ml since the highest amount of precipitate is formed at 0.1 M. Also the supernatant obtained after centrifugation is colourless which suggests that the reaction is complete and there is no unused reagent left. Concentrations less than 0.1 M show decreasing amounts of precipitate and the colour of the supernatant is also increasingly blue. This suggests that as the concentration of sugar is lowered, the amount of unreacted reagent increases which leaves the solution blue even after the reaction completes. 3mM and 1.6 mM sugar samples show a negligible amount of precipitate formation which suggests that the reaction is not sensitive for concentrations lower than 3 mM with a reaction volume of 1.5 ml. For concentrations higher than 0.1 M, the amount of precipitate formed again decreases with increase in concentration which suggests that the concentration is too high as compared to the amount of reagent used and hence no more precipitate is formed after the reaction completes. 6.13 Effect of variation in carbohydrate concentrations (in %) The highest amount of precipitate was formed in 1% sugar sample but there was no consistency in the observations due to incorrect preparation of reagent. During the preparation of reagent instead of mixing Sodium citrate and Copper Sulphate together in hot water they were dissolved separately and then mixed. Also the solution was not made up to 500 ml with distilled water rather measured amount of water was added to the solution to make it 500 ml which made the solution dilute and hence gave incorrect results. 6.14 Effect of variation in Sample Volume Different volumes of sugar were tried for all the different concentrations. There was a variation in the colours obtained. 200ÃŽ ¼l of sugar reacted with 5 ml of reagent showed maximum variation in colours at different concentrations: Reddish Brown, Brown, Green, Greenish blue and dull blue obtained at 4%, 2%, 1%, 0.5% and 0.25% respectively. Sets with 12.5ÃŽ ¼l and 6.25ÃŽ ¼l of sugar volume did not show any noticeable changes in colour which suggest that the volume of sugar solution was not enough for the reaction to take place. 6.15 Effect of reduction in the reaction volume Reduction in the reaction volume made no difference to the variation in colours obtained at different concentrations of sugar which suggests that Benedicts reagent and glucose can be reacted in this ratio in any volume to estimate the concentration of glucose present in an unknown sample. 6.2 Seliwanoffs Test 6.21 Effect of variation in carbohydrate concentration (in %) A cherry red colour is observed for all the concentrations of Fructose used but the intensity of colour obtained decreases with decrease in concentration. The highest intensity is observed at 4% sugar concentration. 0.015% which is the lowest concentration of sugar used gives a very faint red colour which cannot be taken as pos

Essay --

Jordan Belfort: Money Outweighing Punishment The stock market is an enigma to the average individual, as they cannot fathom or predict what the stock market will do. Due to this lack of knowledge, investors typically rely on a knowledgeable individual who inspires the confidence that they can turn their investments into a profit. This trust allowed Jordan Belfort to convince individuals to buy inferior stocks with the belief that they were going to make a fortune, all while he became wealthy instead. Jordan Belfort, the self-titled â€Å"Wolf of Wall Street†, at the helm of Stratton Oakmont was investigated and subsequently indicted with twenty-two counts of securities fraud, stock manipulation, money laundering and obstruction of justice. He went to prison at the age of 36 for defrauding an estimated 100 million dollars from investors through his company (Belfort, 2009). Analyzing his history of offences, how individual and environmental factors influenced his decision-making, and why he desisted from crime following hi s prison sentence can be explained through rational choice theory. Jordan Belfort’s exploitation of individuals and the financial system was for solely the purpose of financial gain. Rational choice theory dictates that individuals are of rational minds and will calculate the costs and benefits and choose actions where the benefits outweigh the punishment for committing it. This theory explains why Belfort turned to criminal actions, such as market manipulation, fraud, and money laundering over normative actions to achieve his goal of wealth when his greed outweighed any fear of punishment from the justice system. Rational choice theory, developed by Ronald Clarke and Derek Cornish in 1985, is a revival of Cesare Becca... ... desisted from crime as his calculations of probability of punishment offsets any potential rewards and thus deterrence is created. Jordan Belfort throughout his entire life subverted the law for his own financial gain, always seeing money as worth the risk in the decisions he made. His decisions were made by a rational mind of his own volition, considering the long-term possibilities and how to stay ahead of his pursuers. He constructed an environment with Stratton Oakmont to enable this behaviour, as well as corrupt those around him to follow in his footsteps. This lead to his repeated violations of laws to generate wealth when his fear of punishment was lower than that of the rewards he could potentially gain. It was only when he was confronted with the reality of his punishment and experienced it directly that he was finally deterred from his criminal behaviour.

Wernher Von Braun :: essays research papers

Wernher Von Braun was the second of three sons born to Baron Magnus von Braun and Baroness Emmy von Quistorp. He was born on March 23, 1912 in Wirsitz, Posen. Wernher was always a visionary, and when he was ten years old he decided his goal in life would be to "help turn the wheel of time." His interests led him to do many things in his early life including composing several pieces of music and recycling old automobile parts to build a new car. Because of spending so much of his time building a car, he flunked in mathematics and physics. However, it was his decision to explore rocketry that led to his great impact on history. Von Braun, at the age of 16, organized an observatory construction team. His volunteers built a complete observatory in their spare time, working as diggers, bricklayers, and carpenters. In 1930, when he was 20, he enrolled at the Berlin Institute of Technology. He received his bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering, and was offered a grant to conduct and develop scientific investigations on liquid-fueled rocket engines. A few years later Wernher received his PhD in physics from the University of Berlin. In the mid 1930's, rocket clubs sprang up all over Germany. One of these clubs, the Verein fur Raumschiffarht had engineer Wernher von Braun as a member. By 1934 von Braun had a team of 80 engineers building rockets in Kummersdorf. With the launch of two rockets, Max and Moritz, in 1934, von Braun's proposal to work on a jet-assisted take-off device for heavy bombers and all-rocket fighters was granted, But Kummersdorf was too small for the work he needed to do, so a new facility had to be built. Peenemunde, on the Baltic coast, was picked as the new site. Peenemunde was large enough to launch and monitor rockets over ranges up to about 200 miles, with observing instruments, with no risk of harming people and property. He was then arrested by the SS and the Gestapo for crimes against the state because he kept on talking about building rockets which would go into orbit around the Earth and perhaps go to the Moon. His crime was indulging in frivolous dreams when he should have been concentrating on building bigger rocket bombs for the Nazi war machine. After arriving back, von Braun immediately assembled his planning staff and asked the m to decide how and to who they should surrender to.

Exposing Pain in The Enormous Radio Essay examples -- Enormous Radio E

Exposing Pain in The Enormous Radio  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚   In John Cheever’s short story, "The Enormous Radio," Jim and Irene Westcott are presented as average, middle-class Americans with hopes and dreams just like everyone else. They are described as "the kind of people who seem to strike that satisfactory average of income, endeavor, and respectability" (Cheever 817). Jim and Irene thought they were the epitome of the perfect American family that was free from trouble and worry. The only way that they differed from their friends and neighbors was a deep passion for serious music. This passion, through the enormous radio, brought to their attention the realization that they had just as many problems as the next family. Their reaction to the radio argues the fact that they were not perfect and did not have a worry-free life. The first sign that the radio was going to cause a problem was its physical appearance. Irene abhorred the radio: "She was struck at once with the physical ugliness of the large gumwood cabinet" (Cheever 817). The radio stuck out like a sore thumb in Irene’s perfectly arranged living room. The radio’s appearance resembled what it would eventually do, "bring a new ugliness into the perfectly arranged lives of the Westcotts" (Giordano 56). When the Westcotts first realize that they had possession of an eavesdropping machine, Irene becomes extremely paranoid about whether or not they are being overheard too, like they have something to hide. Irene quickly becomes obsessed with listening to others’ conversations, as Nathan Giordano points out "it was like tuning into a soap opera on television" (56). The Westcotts would stay up late at night to listen to others’ conversations; some nights they went to bed "weak wit... ...indeed have problems and that turning a blind eye to her problems doesn’t help solve them" (Smith 59). The enormous radio was a reality check for Irene. It was a lesson that all she can do is be the best person she can and that denial only represses guilt for a short time. Whether Irene understands this is uncertain, but the reader finally realizes that even the "average American family" may have problems that must be worked through, not forgotten. Works Cited Cheever, John. "The Enormous Radio." The Harper Anthology of Fiction. Sylvan Barnet. New York: HarperCollins, 1991. 817-824. Giordano, Nathan. "Illusions, Delusions." Ode to Friendship & Other Essays. Ed. Connie Bellamy Virginia Beach, Virginia, 1996. 55-58. Smith, TaVeta. "The Perfect Facade." Ode to Friendship & Other Essays. Ed. Connie Bellamy Virginia Beach, Virginia, 1996. 58-59.      

Top brands

Division of the technology brand on the basis of those who have strong consumer facing brand and those who do not have as Google and other technology brands like Apple and Samsung generate a lot of attention compare to non-technology brands. For few brands which have consumer products, consumer experience plays an Important role. Google with its various application such as maps, translation. Voice services and more is one of those brands for which consumer experience plays an important role. 2.Apple: Apple being a technology brand creates a lot of attention which goes a long way in establishing Itself as the number two brand behind Google. It attracts a lot of commentary, Like Google do, with Its desirable mainstream products as well as their more experimental efforts Like wearable. Firms Like Apple and others shape the bar for what a digital experience for any consumer to be. Collaborations and acquisitions also help Apple grow both as a brand and value. Barberry's collaboration wit h Apple for taking images for its catwalk with the latest ‘phone. 3. MOM: The number third position Is again occupied by a technology company, MOM.Marketing has evolved at an unprecedented rate, the consumer behavior is changing at a blink of an eye, brands are bigger than ever, competition is global, for this purpose you need platforms or software that can keep you in the game for long run, tools which can be incorporated into ever more comprehensive platforms of business software by companies such as IBM and other technology giants. As Microsoft is a very old and well established brand it occupies number four position in the ranking. Through its salient features (coming to mind spontaneously) it has a wide acceptance in terms of reliability and functionality.The rapid rises in brand value and the fluctuations with Apple declining and Microsoft rebounding is testimony to the fact of extraordinary rate of industry maturation and innovation happening simultaneously. Few brands with powerful tagging attract the consumer. The most successful technology brands are those that constantly push brand life cycle to the right. Brands see through the cloud and turn planning into action. 5. McDonald: With a brand value $85,706 million, McDonald occupies the fourth position in the ranking. It is also a salient brand when one thinks of fast food with quality and one which impacts human health directly.McDonald slowed down in terms of brand value as compared to the year 2013 because of menu complications. Influence of other brands either makes the brand more innovative or competitive or makes it fall. 6. Coca-Cola: Coca-Cola is the only soft drinks firm in the top ten Global Brands. Salience in an important parameter for a brand to be consistently in the top brands of the world. If one thinks of fast food McDonald comes into mind and similarly when one thinks of soft drinks Coca-Cola comes to mind. As these brands impact human health any once regarding the same has an adverse effect on the brand as a whole.High brand contribution also plays an important role and helps in staying power. 7. Visa: Certain brands might be very strong compared to their competitors but the category as a whole might not be talked about much and one such category is Visa (credit cards). Financial services are driven by third party communications, consumer facing experimental commentary is minimal. But distinct from this trend Visa and other financial services giants such as American Express had success with consumer campaigns which reiterated the rewarding promise of the cards.We can conclude that campaigning might give surety and security to the customers. 8. AT&T: AT&T is a telecoms brand which occupies eighth position. The pressure and the competition is very tough in telecoms sector and this factor led only to a marginal increment of three percent over the previous year. Also contributing to this cut throat competition is the pricing distribution. In a category noisy with competitor claims, differentiating and services provided makes a huge difference as AT&T made similar points with its TV campaign â€Å"It's not complicated†. 9. Marlboro:With a brand value of $67,341 million Marlboro occupies the ninth position. The possible TV ads and radios in the world condemns. 10. Amazon. Com: Amazon. Com is the only retail brand among the top 10 brand of the world. It gives testimony to the service that it provides, and its foray into the Indian market with one day delivery concept that too free of cost is giving Jitters to Indian retail giants such as Flippant. Com. An online e-retailing firm wouldn't able to exist if it doesn't deliver what it promises and being in the top ten Amazon. Com gives reasons to believe its efficiency, effectiveness to the hilt.

Kaiser Permanente Risk Management Executive Summary Essay

Organization Description Kaiser Permanente (KP) is the nation’s largest integrated health care delivery system. KP serves nine states and over nine million members, with an annual operating revenue in 2013 of 53.1 billion. KP is a leader in quality improvement efforts in the health care industry through participation in studies performed by the National Committee on Quality Assurance (NCQA), The Joint Commission (TJC) accreditations, and the implementation of a state of the art electronic health records system, which focuses on integration and quality of care standardization. The focus of this summary is on KP hospitals in the northern California region and will include topics such as the purpose of risk and quality management, risk identification and management, current risks, quality outcomes, organizational goals, and the relationship between risk and quality management. Risk and Quality Management Purpose General The purpose of risk management in health care is simply the process of protecting the assets and minimizing financial losses to the organization (Singh & Habeeb Ghatala, 2012). A comprehensive risk management strategy within a health care organization will include focus on continuous quality improvement (CQI). The purpose of CQI in health care, according to Sollecito and Johnson (2013), is to offer a â€Å"structured organizational process for involving personnel in planning and executing a continuous flow of improvements to provide quality health care that meets or exceeds expectations† (p. 4). Through linking the processes of risk management and quality improvement the success of both processes is more likely to be realized. Kaiser Permanente The key concepts for risk and quality management at KP are commitment to quality, patient safety, privacy protection, and fraud prevention. KP risk management and quality management programs are central to their mission, values, and culture. Methods currently utilized to support these concepts  within KP are consumer surveys, the use of an integrated EHR with evidence based guidelines and clinical decision-making functionality, stringent patient privacy regulations and processes, continuous clinical and administrative staff training programs, and participation in studies focused on standardizing national quality measures (Kaiser Permanente, 2012). Risk Identification and Management Steps While KP is a leader in health care risk and quality management there are specific steps this consultant is recommending on a continual basis that will improve risk identification and management within the organization. 1. Identify and analyze loss and exposure While there are many methods utilized within the health care industry in the identification and analysis of loss and exposure, the recommended methods for KP are as follows: a) Incident-reporting analysis b) Improvement on the current performance management process for employees to bring focus on risk mitigation and quality improvement. c) Quantitative analysis of patient complaints and satisfaction surveys. d) Review of the organizations past professional liability and workers compensation reports. e) Review of surveys completed by TJC and NCQA on other hospitals in order to identify risk areas that KP should focus on. (McCaffrey & Hagg-Rickert, 2009) 2. Research and propose alternative risk techniques To mitigate risks that are unavoidable at KP, a combination of alternative risk techniques will help reduce situations that might negatively affect the organization. A financial analysis and risk analysis should be performed in order to ascertain the likelihood of utilizing the exposure avoidance technique. This is not a likely option as the financial impact of eliminating services may out weigh the risks involved with continuing them. A loss reduction approach is more likely to be the technique chosen for this organization. The core prevention activities that must be present in the loss reduction technique are as follows: a.) Ongoing staff education b.) Current policy and procedure review and revision c.) Updates to the organizations current EHR system to ensure the data present in the clinical decision-making and evidence-based clinical guidelines technology is the most current data available. According to Chen, et al (2009), â€Å"a growing body of literature confirms the value of electronic health records (EHRs) in improving patient safety, improving coordination of care, enhancing documentation, and facilitating clinical decision making and adherence to evidence-based clinical guidelines† (p. 323). 3. Risk management technique selection This two-part process of risk management technique selection is accomplished through forecasting and application of an ongoing measurement process, which will allow KP to analyze the risk management technique with regard to outcome and cost effectiveness. Included in the measurement process both risk treatment and risk-financing techniques should be measured (McCaffrey & Hagg-Rickert 2009). 4. Implement the selected techniques Implementation of the chosen risk management techniques may include decisions on insurance coverage and policy changes, overall department workflow changes to ensure compliance with state and federally mandated regulations and guidelines, and elimination of processes that impede or hinder patient safety. 5. Monitor and improve upon the implemented risk management program In order to continue improving upon the newly implemented risk management program a comprehensive monitoring strategy should be employed. In fact, McCaffrey and Hagg-Rickert, (2009) stated, â€Å"a multidisciplinary approach to evaluating the risk management program ensures that the impact of additional opportunities to improve the risk management function are fully explored† (p. 21). a.) Prepare an annual risk management report b.) Compare the new annual report against prior years risk management data (McCaffrey & Hagg-Rickert 2009) Current Risks Three risks that KP should take special care to avoid are rejection of newly implemented risk management and CQI procedures by employees, statute and regulatory changes, and health care associated infections (HAIs). 1. Rejection Change implementation is never an easy task and without special care taken the rate of rejection to change by clinical and administrative employees is high. In order to achieve successful CQI changes the following guidelines and recommendations are presented. a.) Minimize employee rejection through easily implemented and followed CQI procedures. b.) Engage employees in planning to increase acceptance. c.) Ensure lateral linkages within the organization across specialty departments to improve communication (Sollecito and Johnson, 2013). 2. Statute and regulatory changes With the ever-changing landscape in state and federal statutes and regulations surrounding the health care industry, special attention to this risk area must be taken. In fact, Cohen (2009) stated that â€Å"health care is one of the most heavily regulated of all sectors of commerce† (p. 328). Failure to comply with state and federal statutes and regulations can bring about negative financial affects at KP, including but not limited to; fines, loss of accreditation and credentialing, and an increase in malpractice lawsuits, not to mention a decrease in quality of care. a.) Risk management and quality improvement officers stay current and involved in statute and regulation changes. b.) Mandate educational goals for risk management and quality management officers with regard to state and federal regulations. c.) Implement a monthly employee newsletter within which the risk management officer and quality improvement officer outline regulation changes. Include processes that emplo yees should expect to see implemented to maintain compliance. Include a signature page with those editions that include changes to policy and ensure all employees sign and return to the human resources department. d.) Ongoing training for clinical and administrative employees with regards to statute and regulation. The risk management and quality improvement officers will be responsible to work with the organizations education department to implement new workshops as needed. e.) Include these responsibilities in the performance monitoring strategy for the risk management and quality improvement officers. 3. HAIs Health care associated infections are a serious risk in hospitals, as noted by Sydnor and Perl (2011), in their statement â€Å"HAIs are the most common complication seen in hospitalized patients† (para. 20). Improper prevention can lead to increased costs, lengthier hospital stays, and even patient death. Additionally, a Condition of Participation (CoP) (42 CFR 482.42) by CMS mandates hospital infection control programs to adhere to specific requirements. Recommendations are as follows. a.) Implement a house-keeping checklist to ensure proper sanitization of patient rooms. b.) Implement a sanitization checklist for clinical staff that will enforce hand washing before and after patient contact. c.) Develop a committee to review and revise the KP infection prevention and control program. Revisions should focus on compliance with TJC and the Center for Disease Control (CDC) regulations. Quality Outcomes Internal and external Three internal and external factors that influence quality outcomes are organization management of interpersonal relationships between physicians and patients, patient compliance, and continuity of care. Without proper management of interpersonal relationships between physicians and patients, the organization will face degradation in trust and openness. Patients should be involved in all treatment decisions, through proper education on their diagnosis and treatment options. This will bring about patient engagement in this decision making process. While KP cannot force their patients to comply with treatment guidelines, the external influence of patient compliance is crucial to quality outcomes. Programs focused on thorough training and education of patients and family members will improve the rate of compliance, thus improving the probability of positive quality outcomes for patients. Lack of patient compliance will hinder the treatment process and lower the level of quality outcomes standards at KP. Continuity of care is another internal influence that can affect quality outcomes. Regular follow up with patients will also increase patient compliance. Without improving continuity of care, the KP organization will see a reduction in positive quality outcomes and an increased in undesired outcomes (DeHarnais, 2013, chp 5). Goals Short-Term 1. Design new regulatory and statute training programs for all clinical and administrative employees. 2. Review and revise the KP infection prevention and control program 3. Revise the performance management system to include CQI measurements and risk management procedures as performance metrics. Long-Term 1. Increase adherence to state and federal regulations and statutes throughout the KP organization. 2. Reduce HAIs by 10% throughout KP hospitals in the northern California region. 3. Improve CQI measurement and risk management policy adherence throughout the northern California region by 20% among clinical employees. Risk and Quality Management Recommendations Risk management policies 1. Quarterly peer review The Health Care Quality Improvement Act (HCQIA) of 1986 â€Å"encourages hospitals, state licensing boards, and professional societies to identify and discipline physicians, dentists, and other health care providers who, after adequate, nondiscriminatory peer review, were found to have engaged in negligent or unprofessional conduct† (Cohen, 2013 p. 333). Through ongoing screening of new and current clinicians, KP will take responsibility for offering their patients that highest quality of care and reducing the risk of employing negligent clinical employees. 2. Zero tolerance adherence policy for all employees with regard to infection control procedures Part of the CMS CoP (42 CFR 482.42) regulation is the â€Å"designation of an infection control officer and development of relevant policies that address the identification and control of infections and communicable diseases. Without full compliance with all CoPs, KP could face the loss of their Medicare provider agreement. 3. Vulnerability analysis chart and emergency plan policy. According to Rawson and Hammond (2009) â€Å"by evaluating vulnerabilities and taking appropriate preventive action, loss can be minimized in an emergency†Ã‚  (p. 506). Health care facilities should include prevention measures in their emergency plans that include the risk of terrorist attacks. While terrorist attack risk cannot be completely mitigated, it is the responsibility of the health care facility to be prepared for such an emergency. Obtain additional information on including risk of terrorist attacks from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Quality management policies 1. Adherence to evidence-based clinical guidelines While it has been shown that â€Å"clinicians have customarily enjoyed a great deal of autonomy in their practices† (Argawal, 2010, para 3), it is imperative that clinicians follow evidence-based clinical guidelines. If exceptions should be made the details of, the patient diagnosis and variations should be presented for peer review prior to altering treatment plans. 2. Minimum score of 88% on customer satisfaction surveys Clinicians must maintain an average score of no less than 88% on customer satisfaction surveys quarterly. In today’s health care market, measurements of quality include consumer satisfaction. In fact, Bernard and Savitz (2009) state that in todays â€Å"competitive health care environment, consumers want and expect better health care services and hospital systems are concerned about maintaining their overall image† (p. 185). Relationship between risk and quality management In the past, risk management officers and quality improvement managers worked autonomously from one another, in fact they most often reported to different superiors. However, today healthcare organizations are realizing that in order to reach quality of care goals and maintain effective risk management programs these disciplines must work together closely. An example of how risk management efforts and quality improvement efforts complement one another is seen in the reduction of medical errors. The risk management plan must consider ways to reduce medical errors, while the quality improvement plan will offer solid steps toward minimizing medical errors (Sollecito and Johnson, 2013). Conclusion This summary focused on topics such as the purpose of risk and quality management, risk identification and management, current risks, quality outcomes, organizational goals, and the relationship between risk and quality management. While KP is the nation’s largest integrated health care delivery systems and leader in CQI standardization, there is always room for improvements. This consultant understands the importance of improvement at KP, thus humbly presents this summary and recommendations to the board of directors. References Agarwal, R. (2010, May). A Guideline for Quality Accreditation in Hospitals. Quality Digest, (), 1-4. Retrieved from http://www.qualitydigest.com/inside/twitter-ed/guideline-quality-accreditation-hospitals.html Chen, C., Garrido, T., Chock, D., Okawa, G., & Liang, L. (2009). The Kaiser Permanente electronic health record: Transforming and streamlining modalities of care. Health Affairs, 28(2), 323-33. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/204522974?accountid=458 Cohen, M. (2009). Statutes, Standards, and Regulations (chp 10) in McCaffrey, J. J., & Hagg-Rickert, S. (2009) Risk Management Handbook (5th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. DesHarnais, S. I. (2013). The outcome model of quality (chp 5) in Sollecito, W. A. and Johnson, J. K. (2013). McLaughlin and Kaluzny’s Continuous Quality Improvement In Health Care (4th ed.). Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Emily R. M. Sydnor, Trish M. Perl (2011, January). Clin Microbiol, 24(1): 141–173. Retrieved from http: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3021207/ Kaiser Permanente. (2014). Kaiser Permanente, Retrieved from http://share.kaiserpermanente.org/article/history-of-kaiser-permanente/ McCaffrey, J. J., & Hagg-Rickert, S. (2009, Chp 1) Developing of a Risk Management Program in Risk Management Handbook (5th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Rawson, M. L. and Hammond, H. Y,. (2009) Emergency Management in McCaffrey, J. J., & Hagg-Rickert, S. (2009, Chp 7) Developing of a Risk Management Program in Risk Management Handbook (5th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Singh, B., & Habeeb Ghatala, M. (2012, August). Risk Management in Hospitals. International Journal of Innovation, Management and Technology, 3(4). Sollecito, W. A. and Johnson, J. K. (2013). McLaughlin and Kaluzny’s Continuous Quality Improvement In Health Care (4th ed.). Jones and Bartlett Publishers.